Islamic literary sources provide far more extensive evidence of temple destruction by the Muslim invaders of India in medieval times. They also cover a larger area, from Sinkiang and Transoxiana in the North to Tamil Nadu in the South, and from the Seistan province of present-day Iran in the West to Assam in the East. As we wade through this evidence, we can visualise how this vast area, which was for long the cradle of Hindu culture, came to be literally littered with the ruins of temples and monasteries belonging to all schools of Sanãtana Dharma-Bauddha, Jaina, Šaiva, Šãkta, VaishNava and the rest. Archaeological explorations and excavations in modern times have proved unmistakably that most of the mosques, mazãrs, ziãrats and dargãhs which were built in this area in medieval times, stood on the sites of and were made from the materials of deliberately demolished Hindu monuments.

Hundreds of medieval Muslim historians who flourished in India and elsewhere in the world of Islam, have written detailed accounts of what their heroes did in various parts of the extensive Hindu homeland as they were invaded one after another. We have had access only to a few of these histories on account of our limitations in terms of language and resources. Most of the histories pertaining to what are known as provincial Muslim dynasties, have remained beyond our reach. One thing, however, becomes quite clear from the evidence we have been able to compile, namely, that almost all Muslim rulers destroyed or desecrated Hindu temples whenever and wherever they could. Archaeological evidence from various Muslim monuments, particularly mosques and dargãhs, not only confirms the literary evidence but also adds the names of some Muslim rulers whom Muslim historians have failed to credit with this pious performance.

We are citing the literary evidence also in a chronological order, that is, with reference to the time at which a particular work was written and not with reference to the period with which it deals. Appendix 1 Provides the names and dates of dynasties and kings described in these histories in the context of India. Most of these histories start with the creation of Adam and Eve or the rise of the Prophet of Islam, and come down to the time when the authors lived. Glorification of Islam, as its armies invaded various countries and laid them waste with slaughter and rapine, is their common theme. The writers have exhausted their imagination in describing g the holocaust that was caused everywhere and in coining names for those whom they look down upon as infidels and idolaters.¹

The apologists of Islam are likely to point out that quite often the instances of iconoclasm have been copied by succeeding historians from the writings of their predecessors and that this repetition should be kept in mind while assessing the extent of temple destruction. There is no substance in this argument. Firstly, there are many instances of temple destruction which are not reported in the histories but which archaeological evidence proves. Secondly, what is relevant in this context is that the historians regard some instances as significant enough to bear repetition. It is obvious that no account of some reigns was considered complete unless the concerned ruler was credited with the destruction of Hindu temples. Had it not been an important pious performance from the point of view of Islam, it is inconceivable that historians who wrote in times when the dust of war had settled down, would have cared to mention it. The repetitions are valuable from another point of view as well. In quite a few cases, succeeding historians add details which are not found in the preceding accounts. It is immaterial whether the details were missed by the earlier historians or are the products of the succeeding historians’ imagination. What matters is that the historians thought them fit for the glorification of Islam.
 

The author, Ahmad bin Yahya bin Jãbir, is known as al-Bilãdhurî. He lived at the court of Khalîfa Al-Mutawakkal (AD 847-861) and died in AD 893. His history is one of the earliest and major Arab chronicles. It gives an account of Arab conquests in Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Iran, Armenia, Transoxiana, Africa, Spain and Sindh. The account is brought down to Khalîfa Mu’tasim’s reign in AD 842. We have had no access to a translation of the full text in a language we know, and have depended on extracts.
 

Ibn Samûrah (AD 653)

His full name was ‘Abd ar-Rahmãn bin Samûrah bin Habîb bin ‘Abd ash-Shams. He was appointed governor of Seistan after the first Arab invasion of that province in AD 650 was defeated and dispersed. Ibn Samûrah reached the capital of Seistan in AD 653.
 

Seistan (Iran)

“On reaching Dãwar, he surrounded the enemy in the mountain of Zûr, where there was a famous Hindu temple.”²

“…Their idol of Zûr was of gold, and its eyes were two rubies. The zealous Musalmãns cut off its hands and plucked out its eyes, and then remarked to the Marzabãn how powerless was his idol to do either good or evil…”³
 

Qutaibah bin Muslim al-Bãhilî (AD 705-715)

He was a general of Al-Hajjãj bin Yûsuf Saqafî, the notorious Governor of Iraq under Caliph Al-Walîd I (AD 705-715). He was made Governor of Khurasan in AD 705 and is renowned in the history of Islam as the conqueror of Central Asia right upto Kashghar.
 

Samarqand (Farghana)

“Other authorities say that Kutaibah granted peace for 700,000 dirhams and entertainment for the Moslems for three days. The terms of surrender included also the houses of the idols and the fire temples. The idols were thrown out, plundered of their ornaments and burned, although the Persians used to say that among them was an idol with which whoever trifled would perish. But when Kutaibah set fire to it with his own hand, many of them accepted Islãm.”⁴
 

Muhammad bin Qãsim (AD 712-715)

He was the nephew as well as son-in-law of Al-Hajjãj, who sent him to Sindh after more than a dozen invasions of that province had been defeated by the Hindus.
 

Debal (Sindh)

“…The town was thus taken by assault, and the carnage endured for three days. The governor of the town, appointed by Dãhir, fled and the priests of the temple were massacred. Muhammad marked a place for the Musalmans to dwell in, built a mosque, and left four thousand Musalmans to garrison the place…

“…‘Ambissa son of Ishãk Az Zabbî, the governor of Sindh, in the Khilafat of Mu’tasim billah knocked down the upper part of the minaret of the temple and converted it into a prison. At the same time he began to repair the ruined town with the stones of the minaret…”⁵
 

Multan (Punjab)

“…He then crossed the Biyãs, and went towards Multãn… Muhammad destroyed the water-course; upon which the inhabitants, oppressed with thirst, surrendered at discretion. He massacred the men capable of bearing arms, but the children were taken captive, as well as the ministers of the temple, to the number of six thousand. The Muslamãns found there much gold in a chamber ten cubits long by eight broad, and there was an aperture above, through which the gold was poured into the chamber…”⁶
 

Hashãm bin ‘Amrû al-Taghlabî

He was appointed Governor of Sindh by Khalîfa Al-Mansûr (AD 754-775) of the Abbãsid dynasty. He led many raids towards different parts of India, both by land and sea.
 

Kandahar (Maharashtra)

“He then went to Kandahãr in boats and conquered it. He destroyed the Budd there, and built in its place a mosque.”⁷
 

The author, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad bin Jarîr at-Tabarî, is considered to be the foremost historian of Islam. His Tãrîkh is regarded as Umdatu’l-Kutab, mother of histories. He was born at Amil in Tabaristan in the year AD 839. He was educated at Baghdad and lived in Basra and Kufa as well. He travelled to Egypt and Damascus in order to perfect his knowledge of Traditions. He spent the last days of his life in Baghdad where he died in AD 922. We have had no access to his work in a translation we could follow. The citations below are only summaries made by modern historians.
 

Qutaibah bin Muslim al-Bãhilî (AD 705-715)

Beykund (Khurasan)

“The ultimate capture of Beykund (in AD 706) rewarded him with an incalculable booty; even more than had hitherto fallen into the hands of the Mahommedans by the conquest of the entire province of Khorassaun; and the unfortunate merchants of the town, having been absent on a trading excursion while their country was assailed by the enemy, and finding their habitations desolate on their return contributed further to enrich the invaders, by the ransom which they paid for the recovery of their wives and children. The ornaments alone, of which these women had been plundered, being melted down, produced, in gold, one hundred and fifty thousand meskals; of a dram and a half each. Among the articles of the booty, is also described an image of gold, of fifty thousand meskals, of which the eyes were two pearls, the exquisite beauty and magnitude of which excited the surprise and admiration of Kateibah. They were transmitted by him, with a fifth of the spoil to Hejauje, together with a request that he might be permitted to distribute, to the troops, the arms which had been found in the place in great profusion.”⁸
 

Samarqand (Farghana)

“A breach was, however, at last effected in the walls of the city in AD 712 by the warlike machines of Kateibah; and some of the most daring of its defenders having fallen by the skill of his archers, the besieged demanded a cessation of arms to the following day, when they promised to capitulate. The request was acceded to by Kateibah; and a treaty was the next day accordingly concluded between him and the prince of Samarkand, by which the latter engaged for the annual payment of ten millions of dirhems, and a supply of three thousand slaves; of whom it was particularly stipulated, that none should either be in a state of infancy, or ineffective from old age and debility. He further contracted that the ministers of his religion should be expelled from their temples and their idols destroyed and burnt; that Kateibah should be allowed to establish a mosque in the place of the principal temple, in which, to discharge the duties of his faith… To all this, Ghurek, with whatever reluctance, was compelled to subscribe, and he proceeded accordingly to prepare for the reception of Kateibah; who at the period agreed upon, entered Samarkand with a retinue of four hundred persons, selected from his own relatives, and the principal commanders of his army. He was met by Ghurek, with a respect bordering on adoration, and conducted to the gate of the principal temple, which he immediately entered; and after performing two rekkauts of the ritual of his faith, directed the images of pagan worship to be brought before him, for the purpose of being committed to the flames. From this some of the Turks or Tartars of Samarkand, endeavouring to dissuade him, by a declaration, that among the images, there was one, which if any person ventured to consume, that person should certainly perish; Kateibah informed them, that he should not shrink from the experiment, and accordingly set fire to the whole collection with his own hands; it was soon consumed to ashes, and fifty thousand meskals of gold and silver, collected from the nails which has been used in the workmanship of the images.”⁹
 

Yã’qûb bin Laith (AD 870-871)

He was a highway robber who succeeded in seizing Khurasan from the Tãhirid governors of the Abbãsid Caliphate. He founded the short-lived Saffãrid dynasty.
 

Balkh and Kabul (Afghanistan)

“He first took Bãmiãn, which he probably reached by way of Herãt, and then marched on Balkh where he ruined (the temple) Naushãd. On his way back from Balkh he attacked Kãbul…¹⁰

“Starting from Panjhîr, the place he is known to have visited, he must have passed through the capital city of the Hindu Šãhîs to rob the sacred temple - the reputed place of coronation of the Šãhî rulers-of its sculptural wealth…¹¹

“The exact details of the spoil collected from the Kãbul valley are lacking. The Tãrîkh [-i-Sistãn] records 50 idols of gold and silver and Mas’udî mentions elephants. The wonder excited in Baghdãd by elephants and pagan idols forwarded to the Caliph by Ya’qûb also speaks for their high value.

“The best of our authorities put the date of this event in 257 (870-71). Tabarî is more precise and says that the idols sent by Ya’qûb reached Baghdãd in Rabî’ al-Ãkhar, 257 (Feb.-March, 871). Thus the date of the actual invasion may be placed at the end of AD 870.”¹²
 

“The author, Abû Rîhan Muhammad bin Ahmad al-Bîrûnî al-Khwãrizmî, was born in about AD 970-71. He was an astronomer, geometrician, historian and logician. He was sent to Ghazni in an embassy from the Sultãn of Khwãrizm. On invitation from Sultãn Mahmûd of Ghazni (AD 997-1030) he entered his service, travelled to India and spent forty years in the country, chiefly in the Punjab. He learnt Sanskrit and translated some works from that language into Arabic. His history treats of the literature and learning of the Hindus at the commencement of the eleventh century.
 

Jalam ibn Shaiban (Ninth century AD)

Multan (Punjab)

The Sun Temple at Multan has been described by early Arab geographers like Sulaimãn, Mas‘ûdî, Istakhrî and Ibn Hauqal who travelled in India during the ninth and tenth centuries of the Christian era. The Arab invaders did not destroy it because besides being a rich source of revenue, it provided protection against Hindu counter-attack. “Mûltan,” wrote Mas‘ûdî, “is one of the strongest frontier places of the Musalmãns… In it is the idol also known by the name of Mûltãn.¹³ The inhabitants of Sind and India perform pilgrimages to it from the most distant places; they carry money, precious stones, aloe wood and all sorts of perfumes there to fulfil their vows. The greatest part of the revenue of the king of Mûltãn is derived from the rich presents brought to the idol… When the unbelievers¹⁴ march against Mûltãn and the faithful ¹⁵ do not feel themselves strong enough to oppose them, they threaten to break their idol, and their enemies immediately withdraw.”¹⁶

Al-Bîrûnî records: “A famous idol of theirs was that of Multan, dedicated to the sun, and therefore called Aditya. It was of wood and covered with red Cordovan leather; in its two eyes were two red rubies. It is said to have been made in the last Kritayuga… When Muhammad Ibn Alkasim Ibn Almunabih conquered Multan, he inquired how the town had become so very flourishing and so many treasures had there been accumulated, and then he found out that this idol was the cause, for there came pilgrims from all sides to visit it. Therefore he thought it best to have the idol where it was, but he hung a piece of cow’s flesh on its neck by way of mockery. On the same place a mosque was built. When the Karmatians¹⁷ occupied Multan, Jalam Ibn Shaiban, the usurper, broke the idol into pieces and killed its priests…”¹⁸
 

Sultãn Mahmûd of Ghazni (AD 997-1030)

Thanesar (Haryana)

“The city of Taneshar is highly venerated by Hindus. The idol of that place is called Cakrasvamin, i.e. the owner of the cakra, a weapon which we have already described. It is of bronze, and is nearly the size of a man. It is now lying in the hippodrome in Ghazna, together with the Lord of Somanath, which is a representation of the penis of Mahadeva, called Linga.”¹⁹
 

Somnath (Gujarat)

“The linga he raised was the stone of Somnath, for soma means the moon and natha means master, so that the whole word means master of the moon. The image was destroyed by the Prince Mahmud, may God be merciful to him! - AH 416. He ordered the upper part to be broken and the remainder to be transported to his residence, Ghaznin, with all its coverings and trappings of gold, jewels, and embroidered garments. Part of it has been thrown into the hippodrome of the town, together with the Cakrasvamin, an idol of bronze, that had been brought from Taneshar. Another part of the idol from Somanath lies before the door of the mosque of Ghaznin, on which people rub their feet to clean them from dirt and wet.”²⁰
 

The author of this history in Arabic was Abû Nasr Muhammad ibn Muhammad al Jabbãru’l-‘Utbî. The family from Utba had held important offices under the Sãmãnîs of Bukhara. ‘Utbi himself became Secretary to Sultãn Mahmûd of Ghazni (AD 997-1030). His work comprises the whole of the reign of Subuktigîn and that of Sultãn Mahmûd down to the year AD 1020. He lived a few years longer. Persian translations of this history are known as Tarjuma-i-Yamînî or Tãrîkh-i-Yamînî.
 

Amîr Subuktigîn of Ghazni (AD 977-997)

Lamghan (Afghanistan)

“The Amîr marched out towards Lamghãn, which is a city celebrated for its great strength and abounding wealth. He conquered it and set fire to the places in its vicinity which were inhabited by infidels, and demolishing idol temples, he established Islãm in them. He marched and captured other cities and killed the polluted wretches, destroying the idolaters and gratifying the Musalmãns.”²¹
 

Sultãn Mahmûd of Ghazni (AD 997-1030)

Narain (Rajasthan)

“The Sultãn again resolved on an expedition to Hind, and marched towards Nãrãîn, urging his horses and moving over ground, hard and soft, until he came to the middle of Hind, where he reduced chiefs, who, up to that time obeyed no master, overturned their idols, put to the sword the vagabonds²² of that country, and with delay and circumspection proceeded to accomplish his design…”²³
 

Nardin (Punjab)

“After the Sultãn had purified Hind from idolatry, and raised mosques therein, he determined to invade the capital of Hind to punish those who kept idols and would not acknowledge the unity of God… He marched with a large army in the year AH 404 (AD 1013) during a dark night…²⁴

“A stone was found there in the temple of the great Budda on which an inscription was written purporting that the temple had been founded fifty thousand years ago. The Sultãn was surprised at the ignorance of these people, because those who believe in the true faith represent that only seven thousand years have elapsed since the creation of the world, and the signs of resurrection are even now approaching. The Sultãn asked his wise men the meaning of this inscription and they all concurred in saying that it was false, and no faith was to be put in the evidence of a stone.”²⁵
 

Thanesar (Haryana)

“The chief of Tãnesar was… obstinate in his infidelity and denial of God. So the Sultãn marched against him with his valiant warriors, for the purpose of planting the standards of Islãm and extirpating idolatry…²⁶

“The blood of the infidels flowed so copiously, that the stream was discoloured, not withstanding its purity, and people were unable to drink it… The victory was gained by God’s grace, who has established Islãm for ever as the best of religions, notwithstanding that idolaters revolt against it… Praise be to God, the protector of the world, for the honour he bestows upon Islãm and Musulmãns.”²⁷
 

Mathura (Uttar Pradesh)

“The Sultãn then departed from the environs of the city, in which was a temple of the Hindûs. The name of this place was Maharatul Hind… On both sides of the city there were a thousand houses, to which idol temples were attached, all strengthened from top to bottom by rivets of iron, and all made of masonry work…²⁸

“In the middle of the city there was a temple larger and firmer than the rest, which can neither be described nor painted. The Sultãn thus wrote respecting it: - ‘If any should wish to construct a building equal to this, he would not be able to do it without expending an hundred thousand, thousand red dînãrs, and it would occupy two hundred years even though the most experienced and able workmen were employed’… The Sultãn gave orders that all the temples should be burnt with naptha and fire, and levelled with the ground.”²⁹
 

Kanauj (Uttar Pradesh)

“In Kanauj there were nearly ten thousand temples, which the idolaters falsely and absurdly represented to have been founded by their ancestors two or three hundred thousand years ago… Many of the inhabitants of the place fled and were scattered abroad like so many wretched widows and orphans, from the fear which oppressed them, in consequence of witnessing the fate of their deaf and dumb idols. Many of them thus effected their escape, and those who did not fly were put to death,”³⁰
 

The author, Khwãjah Mas‘ûd bin Sa‘d bin Salmãn, was a poet. He wrote poems in praise of the Ghaznavid Sultãns – Mas‘ûd, Ibrãhîm and Bahrãm Shãh. He died sometime between AD 1126 and 1131.
 

Sultãn Abu’l Muzaffar Ibrãhîm (AD 1059-1099)

“As power and the strength of a lion was bestowed upon Ibrãhîm by the Almighty, he made over to him the well-populated country of Hindustãn and gave him 40,000 valiant horsemen to take the country, in which there were more than 1000 rãîs… Its length extends from Lahore to the Euphrates, and its breadth from Kashmîr to the borders of Sîstãn… The army of the king destroyed at one time a thousand temples of idols, which had each been built for more than a thousand years. How can I describe the victories of the king…”³¹
 

Jalandhar (Punjab)

“The narrative of thy battles eclipses the stories of Rustam and Isfandiyãr. Thou didst bring an army in one night from Dhangãn to Jãlandhar… Thou didst direct but one assault and by that alone brought destruction upon the country. By the morning meal not one soldier, not one Brãhman, remained unkilled or uncaptured. Their beads were severed by the carriers of swords. Their houses were levelled with the ground with flaming fire… Thou has secured victory to the country and to religion, for amongst the Hindus this achievement will be remembered till the day of resurrection.”³²
 

Malwa (Madhya Pradesh)

“Thou didst depart with a thousand joyful anticipations on a holy expedition, and didst return having achieved a thousand victories… On this journey the army destroyed a thousand idol-temples and thy elephants trampled over more than a hundred strongholds. Thou didst march thy arm to Ujjain; Mãlwã trembled and fled from thee… On the way to Kãlinjãr thy pomp obscured the light of day. The lip of infidelity became dry through fear of thee, the eye of plural-worship became blind…”³³
 

This Persian history was translated from Arabic by Muhammad ‘Alî bin Hamîd bin Abû Bakr Kûfî in the time of Nãsiru’d-Dîn Qabãcha, a slave of Muhammad Ghurî, who contested the throne of Delhi with Shamsu’d-Dîn Iltutmish (AD 1210-1236). The translator who lived at Uccha had gone to Alor and Bhakkar in search of accounts of the Arab conquest. He met a Maulãna who had inherited a history written in Arabic by one of his ancestors. The translation in Persian followed because Kûfî found that the Hijãjî Arabic of the original was little understood by people in those days while the work was “a mine of wisdom.” The Arabic original has been lost. The author remains unknown.
 

Muhammad bin Qãsim (AD 712-715)

Nirun (Sindh)

“Muhammad built at Nîrûn a mosque on the site of the temple of Budh, and ordered prayers to be proclaimed in the Muhammadan fashion and appointed an Imãm.”³⁴
 

Siwistan and Sisam (Sindh)

Muhammad bin Qãsim wrote to al-Hajjãj, the governor of Iraq: “The forts of Siwistãn and Sîsam have been already taken. The nephew of Dãhir, his warriors, and principal officers have been despatched, and infidels converted to Islãm or destroyed. Instead of idol temples, mosques and other places of worship have been built, pulpits have been erected, the Khutba is read, the call to prayers is raised so that devotions are performed at the stated hours. The takbîr and praise to the Almighty God are offered every morning and evening.”³⁵
 

Alor (Sindh)

“Muhammad Kãsim then entered and all the town people came to the temple of Nobhãr, and prostrated themselves before an idol. Muhammad Kãsim enquired: ‘Whose house is this, in which all the people high and low are respectfully kneeling and bowing down.’ They replied: ‘This is an idol-house called Nobhãr.’ Then, by Muhammad Kãsim’s order, the temple was opened. Entering it with his officers he saw an equestrian statue. The body of the idol was made of marble or alabaster, and it had on its arms golden bracelets, set with jewels and rubies. Muhammad Kãsim stretched his hand and took off a bracelet from one of the idol’s arms. Then he asked the keeper of the Budh temple Nobhãr: ‘Is this your idol?’ ‘Yes,’ he replied, ‘but it had two bracelets on, and one is missing.’ ‘Well’ said Muhammad Kãsim, ‘cannot your god know who has taken away his bracelet?’ The keeper bent his head down. Muhammad Kãsim laughed and returned the bracelet to him, and he fixed it again on the idol’s arm.”³⁶
 

Multan (Punjab)

“Then all the great and principal inhabitants of the city assembled together, and silver to the weight of sixty thousand dirams was distributed and every horseman got a share of four hundred dirams weight. After this, Muhammad Kãsim said that some plan should be devised for realizing the money to be sent to the Khalîfa. He was pondering over this, when suddenly a Brahman came and said, ‘Heathenism is now at an end, the temples are thrown down, the world has received the light of Islãm, and mosques are built instead of idol temples. I have heard from the elders of Multãn that in ancient times there was a chief in this city whose name was Jîbawîn, and who was a descendent of the Rãî of Kashmîr. He was a Brahman and a monk, he strictly followed his religion, and always occupied his time in worshipping idols. When his treasures exceeded all limits and computation, he made a reservoir on the eastern side of Multãn, which was hundred yards square.  In the middle of it he built a temple fifty yards square, and he made a chamber in which he concealed forty copper jars each of which was filled with African gold dust. A treasure of three hundred and thirty mans of gold was buried there. Over it there is an idol made of red gold, and trees are planted round the reservoir.’ It is related by historians, on the authority of ‘Ali bin Muhammad who had heard it from Abû Muhammad Hinduî³⁷ that Muhammad Kãsim arose and with his counsellors, guards and attendants, went to the temple. He saw there an idol made of gold, and its two eye were bright red rubies.

“……Muhammad Kãsim ordered the idol to be taken up. Two hundred and thirty mans of gold were obtained, and forty jars filled with gold dust… This gold and the image were brought to treasury together with the gems and pearls and treasures which were obtained from the plunder of Multãn.”³⁸
 

Jãnakî’s Evidence

Jãnakî was one of the daughters of King Dãhir of Sindh. She was captured along with her sister and sent to the Khalîfa at Baghdad. When the Khalîfa invited Jãnakî to share his bed, she lied to him that she had already been violated by Muhammad bin Qãsim. Her sister supported her statement. The Khalîfa ordered that Muhammad be sewed up in raw hide and sent to his court. Muhammad was already dead when the chest containing him arrived in Baghdad. Jãnakî accused the Khalîfa of having killed one of his great generals without making proper enquiry. She said:

“The king has committed a very grievous mistake, for he ought not, on account of two slave girls, to have destroyed a person who had taken captive a hundred thousand modest women like us… and who instead of temples had erected mosques, pulpits and minarets…”³⁹
 

The author of this collection of stories was Maulãna Nûru’d-Dîn Muhammad ‘Ufî. He was born in or near the city of Bukhara in Transoxiana. He came to India and lived in Delhi for some time in the reign of Shamsu’d-Dîn Iltutmish (AD 1210-1236). He travelled to several other places in India.
 

‘Amrû bin Laith (AD 879-900)

Sakawand (Afghanistan)

“It is related that Amrû Lais conferred the governorship of Zãbulistãn on Fardaghãn and sent him there at the head of four thousand horse. There was a large Hindu place of worship in that country, which was called Sakãwand, and people used to come on pilgrimage from the most remote parts of Hindustãn to the idols of that place. When Fardaghãn arrived in Zãbulistãn he led his army against it, took the temple, broke the idols in pieces and overthrew the idolaters…”⁴⁰
 

The author, Sadru’d-Dîn Muhammad Hasan Nizãmî, was born at Nishapur in Khurasan. He had to leave his ancestral place because of the Mongol invasion. He came to India and started writing his history in AD 1205. The history opens with the year 1191 and comes down to AD 1217.
 

Sultãn Muhammad Ghûrî (AD 1175-1206)

Ajmer (Rajasthan)

“He destroyed the pillars and foundations of the idol temples and built in their stead mosques and colleges, and the precepts of Islãm, and the customs of the law were divulged and established…”⁴¹
 

Kuhram and Samana (Punjab)

“The Government of the fort of Kohrãm and of Sãmãna were made over by the Sultãn to Kutbu-d dîn… He purged by his sword the land of Hind from the filth of infidelity and vice, and freed it from the thorn of God-plurality, and the impurity of idol-worship, and by his royal vigour and intrepidity, left not one temple standing…”⁴²
 

Meerut (Uttar Pradesh)

“Kutbu-d dîn marched from Kohrãm ‘and when he arrived at Mirãt -which is one of the celebrated forts of the country of Hind, for the strength of its foundations and superstructure, and its ditch, which was as broad as the ocean and fathomless-an army joined him, sent by the dependent chiefs of the country’. The fort was captured, and a Kotwal appointed to take up his station in the fort, and all the idol temples were converted into mosques.”⁴³
 

Delhi

“He then marched and encamped under the fort of Delhi… The city and its vicinity were freed from idols and idols-worship, and in the sanctuaries of the images of the Gods, mosques were raised by the worshippers of one God.”⁴⁴

“Kutbu-d dîn built the Jãmi‘ Masjid at Delhi, and adorned it with stones and gold obtained from the temples which had been demolished by elephants, and covered it with inscriptions in Toghra, containing the divine commands.”⁴⁵
 

Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh)

“From that place [Asni] the royal army proceeded towards Benares ‘which is the centre of the country of Hind’ and here they destroyed nearly one thousand temples, and raised mosques on their foundations; and the knowledge of the law became promulgated, and the foundations of religion were established…”⁴⁶
 

Aligarh (Uttar Pradesh)

“There was a certain tribe in the neighbourhood of Kol which had… occasioned much trouble… ‘Three bastions were raised as high as heaven with their beads, and their carcases became the food of beasts of prey.  That tract was freed from idols and idol-worship and the foundations of infidelity were destroyed’…”⁴⁷
 

Bayana (Rajasthan)

“When Kutbu-d dîn beard of the Sultãn’s march from Ghazna, he was much rejoiced and advanced as far as Hãnsî to meet him… In the year AH 592 (AD 1196), they marched towards Thangar, and the centre of idolatry and perdition became the abode of glory and splendour…”⁴⁸
 

Kalinjar (Uttar Pradesh)

“In the year AH 599 (AD 1202), Kutbu-d dîn proceeded to the investment Kãlinjar, on which expedition he was accompanied by the Sãhib-Kirãn, Shamsu-d dîn Altamsh… The temples were converted into mosques and abodes of goodness, and the ejaculations of bead-counters and voices of summoners to prayer ascended to high heaven, and the very name of idolatry was annihilated…”⁴⁹
 

Sultãn Shamsu’d-Dîn Iltutmish (AD 1210-1236)

Delhi

“The Sultãn then returned [from Jalor] to Delhi… and after his arrival ‘not a vestige or name remained of idol temples which had raised their heads on high; and the light of faith shone out from the darkness of infidelity… and the moon of religion and the state became resplendent from the heaven of prosperity and glory.”⁵⁰
 

Also known as Tãrîkh-i-Kãmil, it was written by Shykh ‘Abu’l Hasan ‘Alî ibn ‘Abu’l Karam Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn ‘Abdul Karîm ibn ‘Abdul Wãhid as-Shaibãnî, commonly known as Ibn Asîr. He was born in AD 1160 in the Jazîrat ibn ‘Umar, an island on the Tigris above Mosul. The book embraces the history of the world from the earliest period to the year AD 1230. It enjoys a very high reputation.
 

Khalîfa Al-Mahdî (AD 775-785)

Barada (Gujarat)

“In the year 159 (AD 776) Al Mahdî sent an army by sea under ‘Abdul Malik bin Shahãbu’l Musamma’î to India… They proceeded on their way and at length disembarked at Barada. When they reached the place they laid siege to it… The town was reduced to extremities, and God prevailed over it in the same year. The people were forbidden to worship the Budd, which the Muhammadans burned.”⁵¹
 

Sultãn Mahmûd of Ghazni (AD 997-1030)

Unidentified Places (Rajasthan and Gujarat)

“So he prayed to the Almighty for aid, and left Ghaznî on the 10th of Sha’bãn AH 414… with 30,000 horse besides volunteers, and took the road to Multãn. After he had crossed the desert he perceived on one side a fort full of people, in which there were wells. People came down to conciliate him, but he invested the place, and God gave him victory… So he brought the place under the sway of Islãm, killed the inhabitants, and broke in pieces their images…⁵²

“The chief of Anhilwãra called Bhîm, fled hastily… Yamînu-d daula again started for Somnãt, and on his march he came to several forts in which were many images serving as chamberlains or heralds of Somnãt, and accordingly he (Mahmûd) called them Shaitãn. He killed the people who were in these places, destroyed the fortifications, broke in pieces the idols and continued his march to Somnãt…”⁵³
 

Somnath (Gujarat)

“This temple of Somnãt was built upon fifty-six pillars of teak wood covered with lead. The idol itself was in a chamber… Yamînu’d daula seized it, part of it he burnt, and part of it he carried away with him to Ghaznî, where he made it a step at the entrance of the Jãmi‘ masjid…”⁵⁴
 

“The author, ‘Alãu’d-Dîn Malik ibn Bahãu’d-Dîn Muhammad Juwainî, was a native of Juwain in Khurasan near Nishapur. His father who died in AD 1253 was one of the principal revenue officers under the Mongol ruler of Persia. ‘Alau’d-Dîn followed in his father’s office. He was with Halãkû during the Mongol campaign against the Ismãi’lians and was later on appointed the governor of Baghdad. He fell from grace and was imprisoned at Hamadan. He was, however, exonerated and restored to his office which he retained till his death in AH 681 (AD 1282). His history comes down to the year AD 1255.
 

Sultãn Jalãlu’d-Dîn Mankbarnî (AD 1222-1231)

Debal (Sindh)

“The Sultãn then went towards Dewal and Darbela and Jaisî… The Sultãn raised a Jãmi‘ Masjid at Dewal, on the spot where an idol temple stood.”⁵⁵
 

The author, Maulãna ‘Abû Umr ‘Usmãn Minhãju’d-Dîn bin Sirãju’d-Dîn al-Juzjãnî, was born in AD 1193. In 1227 he arrived in Uccha where he was placed in charge of Madrasa-i-Fîrûzî. He presented himself to Sultãn Shamsu’d-Dîn Iltutmish when the latter came to Uccha in 1228. The same year he accompanied Iltutmish to Delhi and joined the expedition to Gwalior, which city was placed in his charge. He returned to Delhi in 1238 and took charge of Madrasa-i-Nãsiriya. His fortune brightened after Nãsiru’d-Dîn became the Sultãn in 1246; he was appointed Qãzi-i-mamãlik in 1251. His history starts with Adam and comes down the year 1260.
 

Sultãn Mahmûd of Ghazni (AD 997-1030)

Somnath (Gujarat)

“When Sultãn Mahmûd ascended the throne of sovereignty, his illustrious deeds became manifest unto all mankind within the pale of Islãm when he converted so many thousands of idol temples into masjids… He led an army to Nahrwãlah of Gujarãt, and brought away Manãt, the idol, from Somnãth, and had it broken into four parts, one of which was cast before the entrance of the great Masjid at Ghaznîn, the second before the gateway of the Sultãn’s palace, and the third and fourth were sent to Makkah and Madînah respectively.”⁵⁶

The translator comments in a footnote: “Among die different coins struck in Mahmûd’s reign one bore the following inscription: ‘The right hand of the empire, Mahmûd Sultãn, son of Nãsir-ud-Dîn Subuk-Tigîn, Breaker of Idols.’ This coin appears to have been struck at Lãhor, in the seventh year of his reign.”⁵⁷
 

Sultãn Shamsu’d-Dîn Iltutmish (AD 1210-1236)

Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh)

“After he returned to the capital in the year AH 632 (AD 1234) the Sultãn led the hosts of Islãm toward Mãlwah, and took the fortress and town of Bhîlsãn, and demolished the idol-temple which took three hundred years in building and which, in altitude, was about one hundred ells.”⁵⁸
 

Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh)

“From thence he advanced to Ujjain-Nagarî and destroyed the idol-temple of Mahãkãl Dîw. The effigy of Bikramjît who was sovereign of Ujjain-Nagarî, and from whose reign to the present time one thousand, three hundred, and sixteen years have elapsed, and from whose reign they date the Hindûî era, together with other effigies besides his, which were formed of molten brass, together with the stone (idol) of Mahãkãl were carried away to Delhî, the capital.”⁵⁹

Among his “Victories and Conquests” is counted the “bringing away of the idol of Mahãkãl, which they have planted before the gateway of the Jãmi’ Masjid at the capital city of Delhi in order that all true believers might tread upon it.”⁶⁰
 

The author, Zakarîya bin Muhammad, was born in the town of Kazwin in Iran and became known as al-Kazwînî. His work is a compilation from the writings of travellers like Istakhrî and Ibn Hauqal. It was written between AD 1263 and 1275.
 

Sultãn Muhmûd of Ghazni (AD 997-1030)

Somnath (Gujarat)

“SOMNÃT-A celebrated city of India, is situated on the shores of the sea, and washed by its waves. Among the wonders of that place was the temple in which was placed the idol called Somnãt… When the Sultãn Yamînu-d Daula Mahmûd bin Subuktigîn went to wage religious war against India, he made great efforts to capture and destroy Somnãt, in the hope that Hindus would become Muhammadans. He arrived there in the middle of Zîl K’ada AH 416 (December AD 1025). The Indians made a desperate resistance… The number of slain exceeded 50,000…”⁶¹
 

Muhammad bin Qãsim (AD 712-715)

Multan (Punjab)

“Muhammad Kãsim, ascertaining that large offerings were made to the idol, and wishing to add to his resources by those means, left it uninjured, but in order to show his horror of Indian superstition, he attached a piece of cow’s flesh to its neck, by which he was able to gratify his avarice and malignity at the same time.”⁶²
 

The author, ‘Abû Sa‘îd ‘Abdullah bin ‘Abû’l Hasan ‘Alî Baizãwî, was born at Baiza, a town near Shiraz in Iran. He became a Qãzî, first at Shiraz and then at Tabriz, where he died in AD 1286. His history starts from the earliest period and comes down to the Mongol invasions.
 

Sultãn Mahmûd of Ghaznî (AD 997-1030)

“Nãsiru-d dîn [Subuktigîn] died in the year AH 387 (AD 997) and the command of his troops descended to Mahmûd by inheritance, and by confirmation of Nûh, son of Mansûr… He demolished the Hindû temples and gave prevalence to the Muhammadan faith…”⁶³
 

The author, Amîr Khusrû, was born at Delhi in 1253. His father occupied high positions in the reigns of Sultãn Shamsu’d-Dîn Iltutmish (AD 1210-1236) and his successors. His mother was the daughter of another dignitary under Sultãn Ghiyãsu’d-Dîn Balban (AD 1266-1286). He himself became a companion of Balban’s son, Prince Muhammad, and stayed at Multãn till the prince was killed in a battle with the Mongols. Reputed to be the dearest disciple of Shykh Nizãmu’d-Dîn Auliyã‘, he became the lick-spittle of whoever came out victorious in the contest for the throne at Delhi. He became a court poet of Balban’s successor, Sultãn Kaiqubãd (AD 1288-1290) and wrote his Qirãnu’s S‘ãdaîn in the Sultãn’s praise in AD 1289. Next, he joined Sultãn Jalãlu’d-Dîn Khaljî (AD 1290-1296) as a court poet after the latter murdered Kaiqubãd. He wrote in 1291 the Miftãhu‘l-Futûh which describes Jalãlu’d-Dîn’s victories.
 

Sultãn Jalãlu’d -Dîn Khaljî (AD 1290-1296)

Jhain (Rajasthan)

“The Sultãn reached Jhãin in the afternoon of the third day and stayed in the palace of the Rãya… He greatly enjoyed his stay for some time. Coming out, he took a round of the gardens and temples. The idols he saw amazed him… Next day he got those idols of gold smashed with stones. The pillars of wood were burnt down by his order… A cry rose from the temples as if a second Mahmûd had taken birth. Two idols were made of brass, one of which weighed nearly a thousand mans. He got both of them broken, and the pieces were distributed among his people so that they may throw them at the door of the Masjid on their return [to Delhi]…”⁶⁴

Another version of the same text is available in the translation by Elliot edited by Dowson:

“Three days after this, the king entered Jhãin at midday and occupied the private apartment of the rãi… He then visited the temples, which were ornamented with elaborate work in gold and silver. Next day he went again to the temples, and ordered their destruction, as well as of the fort, and set fire to the palace, and ‘thus made hell of paradise’… While the soldiers sought every opportunity of plundering, the Shãh was engaged in burning the temples, and destroying the idols. There were two bronze idols of Brahma each of which weighed more than a thousand mans. These were broken into pieces and the fragments distributed amongst the officers, with orders to throw them down at the gates of the Masjid on their return.”⁶⁵
 

Sultãn ‘Alãu’d-Dîn Khaljî (AD 1296-1316)

Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh)

“When he advanced from the capital of Karra, the Hindûs, in alarm, descended into the earth like ants. He departed towards the garden of Behãr to dye that soil with blood as red as tulip. He cleared the road to Ujjain of vile wretches, and created consternation in Bhîlsãn. When he effected his conquests in that country, he drew out of the river the idols which had been concealed in it.”⁶⁶
 

Devagiri (Maharashtra)

“But see the mercy with which he regarded the brokenhearted, for, after seizing the rãî, he set him free again. He destroyed the temples of the idolaters, and erected pulpits and arches for mosques.”⁶⁷
 

This work is also by Amîr Khusrû who wrote it in praise of ‘Alãu’d-Dîn Khaljî when the latter became the Sultãn after murdering his uncle and father-in-law, Sultãn Jalãlu’d-Dîn Khaljî. Khusrû was among the foremost notables who welcomed ‘Alãu’d-Dîn when the latter reached Delhi with the head of the late king held aloft on the point of a spear. He completed this history in AD 1311. It is famous for its flowery language and figures of speech.
 

Sultãn ‘Alãu’d-Dîn Khaljî (AD 1296-1316)

Delhi

“He started his building programme with the Jãmi‘ Hazrat mosque… Thereafter he decided to build a second mînãr opposite to the lofty mînãr of the Jãmi‘ Masjid, which mînãr is unparalleled in the world…⁶⁸ He ordered the circumference of the new mînãr to be double that of the old one. People were sent out in all directions in search of stones. Some of them broke the hills into pieces. Some others proved sharper than steel in breaking the temples of the infidels. Wherever these temples were bent in prayers, they were made to do prostration.”⁶⁹
 

Somnath (Gujarat)

“On Wednesday, the 20th of Jamãdî-ul Awwal in AH 698 (23 February, 1299), the Sultãn sent an order to the manager of the armed forces for despatching the army of Islãm to Gujarãt so that the temple of Somnãt on its shore could be destroyed. Ulugh Khãn was put in charge of the expedition. When the royal army reached that province, it won a victory after great slaughter. Thereafter the Khãn-i-‘Ãzam went with his army to the sea-shore and besieged Somnãt which was a place of worship for the Hindûs. The army of Islãm broke the idols and the biggest idol was sent to the court of the Sultãn.”⁷⁰

Professor Mohammed Habib’s translation provides a fuller version. It reads: “So the temple of Somnath was made to bow towards the Holy Mecca; and as the temple lowered its head and jumped into the sea, you may say that the building first said its prayers and then had a bath… It seemed as if the tongue of the Imperial sword explained the meaning of the text: ‘So he (Abraham) broke them (the idols) into pieces except the chief of them, that haply they may return to it.’ Such a pagan country, the Mecca of the infidels, now became the Medina of Islam. The followers of Abraham now acted as guides in place of the Brahman leaders. The robust-hearted true believers rigorously broke all idols and temples wherever they found them. Owing to the war, ‘takbir,’ and ‘shahadat’ was heard on every side; even the idols by their breaking affirmed the existence of God. In this ancient land of infidelity the call to prayers rose so high that it was heard in Baghdad and Madain (Ctesiphon) while the ‘Ala’ proclamation (Khutba) resounded in the dome of Abraham and over the water of Zamzam… The sword of Islam purified the land as the Sun purifies the earth.”⁷¹
 

Jhain (Rajasthan)

“On Tuesday, the 3rd of Ziqãd in AH 700 (10 July, 1301), the strong fort [of Ranthambhor] was conquered. Jhãin which was the abode of the infidels, became a new city for Musalmãns. The temple of Bãhirdev was the first to be destroyed. Subsequently, all other abodes of idolatry were destroyed. Many strong temples which would have remained unshaken even by the trumpet blown on the Day of Judgment, were levelled with the ground when swept by the wind of Islãm.”⁷²
 

Warangal (Andhra Pradesh)

“When the blessed canopy had been fixed about a mile from the gate of Arangal, the tents around the fort were pitched together so closely that the head of a needle could not go between them… Orders were issued that every man should erect behind his own tent a kathgar, that is wooden defence. The trees were cut with axes and felled, notwithstanding their groans; and the Hindus, who worship trees, could not at that time come to the rescue of their idols, so that every cursed tree which was in that capital of idolatry was cut down to the roots…⁷³

“During the attack, the catapults were busily plied on both sides… ‘Praise be to God for his exaltation of the religion of Muhammad. It is not to be doubted that stones are worshipped by Gabrs,⁷⁴ but as the stones did no service to them, they only bore to heaven the futility of that worship, and at the same time prostrated their devotees upon earth’…”⁷⁵
 

Deccan and South India

“The tongue of the sword of the Khalîfa of the time, which is the tongue of the flame of Islãm, has imparted light to the entire darkness of Hindustãn by the illumination of its guidance… and on the right hand and on the left hand the army has conquered from sea to sea, and several capitals of the gods of the Hindûs in which Satanism had prevailed since the time of the Jinns, have been demolished. All these impurities of infidelity have been cleansed by the Sultãn’s destruction of idol temples, beginning with his first expedition against Deogîr, so that the flames of the light of the law illumine all these unholy countries, and places for the criers to prayers are exalted on high, and prayers are read in mosques. God be praised!”⁷⁶
 

Chidambaram (Tamil Nadu)

“After returning to Bîrdhûl, he again pursued the Rãjã to Kandûr… The Rãî again escaped him, and he ordered a general massacre at Kandûr. It was then ascertained that he had fled to Jãlkota… There the Malik closely pursued him, but he had again escaped to the jungles, which the Malik found himself unable to penetrate, and he therefore returned to Kandûr… Here he heard that in Brahmastpûrî there was a golden idol, round which many elephants wore stabled. The Malik started on a night expedition against this place, and in the morning seized no less then two hundred and fifty elephants. He then determined on razing the beautiful temple to the ground – ‘you might say that it was the Paradise of Shaddãd which, after being lost, those hellites had found, and that it was the golden Lanka of Rãm,’ – ‘the roof was covered with rubies and emeralds’, - ‘in short, it was the holy place of the Hindûs, which the Malik dug up from its foundations with the greatest care… and heads of the Brahmans and idolaters danced from their necks and fell to the ground at their feet,’ and blood flowed in torrents. ‘The stone idol called Ling Mahãdeo which had been a long time established at that place and on which the women of the infidels rubbed their vaginas for [sexual] satisfaction, these, up to this time, the kick of the horse of Islãm had not attempted to break.’ The Musalmãns destroyed all the lings, ‘and Deo Narain fell down, and the other gods who had fixed their seats there raised their feet, and jumped so high, that at one leap they reached the fort of Lanka, and in that affright the lings themselves would have fled had they had any legs to stand on.’ Much gold and valuable jewels fell into the hands of the Musalmãns, who returned to the royal canopy, after executing their holy project, on the 13th of Zî-l Ka’da, AH 710 (April 1311 AD). They destroyed an the temples at Bîrdhûl, and placed the plunder in the public treasury.”⁷⁷
 

Madura (Tamil Nadu)

“After five days, the royal canopy moved from Bîrdhûl on Thursday, the 17th of Zî-l Ka’da, and arrived at Kham, and five days afterwards they arrived at the city of Mathra (Madura), the dwelling place of the brother of the Rãî Sundar Pãndyã. They found the city empty, for the Rãî had fled with the Rãnîs, but had left two or three elephants in the temple of Jagnãr (Jagganãth). The elephants were captured and the temple burnt.”⁷⁸
 

Amîr Khusrû wrote this epic in AD 1315. It is popularly known as ‘Ãshîqa, love-story. Its main theme is love between Dawal Rãnî, the captured daughter of the last Hindu King of Gujarat, and Khizr Khãn, the eldest son of ‘Alãu’d-Dîn Khaljî. It also describes Muslim history in India upto the reign of ‘Alãu’d-Dîn Khaljî, including Malik Kãfûr’s expedition to South India in AD 1310.
 

Sultãn ‘Alãu’d-Dîn Khaljî (AD 1296-1316)

Pattan (Tamil Nadu)

“There was another rãî in those parts, whose rule extended over sea and land, a Brahmin named Pandyã Gurû. He had many cities in his possession, and his capital was Fatan, where there was a temple with an idol in it laden with jewels… The rãî, when the army of the Sultãn arrived at Fatan, fled away, and what can an army do without its leader?  The Musalmãns in his service sought protection from the king’s army, and they were made happy with the kind of reception they met. 500 elephants were taken. They then struck the idol with an iron hatchet, and opened its head. Although it was the very Kibla of the accursed gabrs, it kissed the earth and filled the holy treasury.”⁷⁹
 

It is the fourth historical mathnavî which Amîr Khusrû wrote when he was 67 years old. It celebrates the reign of Sultãn Mubãrak Shãh Khaljî. It consists of nine(nuh) siphirs (parts). In Siphir III, he says that the Hindus “worship...stones, beasts, plants and the sun, but they recognize that these things are creations of God and adore them simply because their forefathers did so.”⁸⁰
 

Sultãn Mubãrak Shãh Khaljî (AD 1316-1320)

Warrangal (Andhra Pradesh)

“They pursued die enemy to the gates and set everything on fire. They burnt down all those gardens and groves. That paradise of idol-worshippers became like hell. The fire-worshippers of Bud were in alarm and flocked round their idols…”⁸¹
 

It was written by Sayyid Muhammad bin Mubãrak bin Muhammad ‘Alwî Kirmãnî known as Amîr or Mîr Khwurd. He was the grandson of an Iranian merchant who traded between Kirman in Iran and Lahore, and who became a disciple of Shykh Farîdu’d-Dîn Ganj-i-Shakar, the Sufi luminary of Ajodhan near Multan. His father was also a disciple of the same Sufi. The family travelled to Delhi after Shykh Farîd’s death and became devoted to Shykh Nizãmu’d-Dîn Auliyã‘. Mîr Khwurd was forced to migrate to Daulatabad by Sultãn Muhammad bin Tughlaq but allowed to return to Delhi after some time. It was then that he wrote this detailed biography of the Auliyã‘ and his disciples.
 

Shykh Mu‘în al-Dîn Chistî of Ajmer (d.  AD 1236)

Ajmer (Rajasthan)

“The other miracle is that before his arrival the whole of Hindustan was submerged by unbelief and idol-worship. Every haughty man in Hind pronounced himself to be Almighty God and considered himself as the partner of God. All the people of India used to prostrate themselves before stones, idols, trees, animals, cows and cow-dung. Because of the darkness of unbelief over this land their hearts were locked and hardened.

“All India was ignorant of orders of religion and law. All were ignorant of Allãh and His Prophet. None had seen the Ka‘ba. None had heard of the Greatness of Allãh.

“Because of his coming, the, Sun of real believers, the helper of religion, Mu‘în al-dîn, the darkness of unbelief in this land was illumined by the light of Islam.

“Because of his Sword, instead of idols and temples in the land of unbelief now there are mosques, mihrãb and mimbar. In the land where there were the sayings of the idol-worshippers, there is the sound of ‘Allãhu Akbar’.

“The descendants of those who were converted to Islam in this land will live until the Day of Judgement; so too will those who bring others into the fold of Islam by the sword of Islam. Until the Day of Judgement these converts will be in the debt of Shaykh al-Islãm Mu‘în al-dîn Hasan Sijzã and these people will be drawing closer to Almighty Allãh because of the auspicious devotion of Mu‘în al-dîn.”⁸²
 

The author, ‘Abdu’llãh ibn Fazlu’llãh of Shiraz, is known by his literary name which was Wassãf, the panegyrist. The history he wrote is titled Tazjiyatu’l Amsãr Wa Tajriyatu’l Ãsãr. But it is popularly known as Tãrîkh-i-Wassãf. The first four volumes of the work were published in AD 1300. Later on, the author added a fifth volume, bringing the history down to AD 1328. The work was dedicated to Sultãn Uljãîtû, the Mongol ruler of Iran.
 

Sultãn ‘Alãu’d-Dîn Khaljî (AD 1296-1316)

Somnath (Gujarat)

“…In short, the Muhammadan army brought the country to utter ruin, and destroyed the lives of the inhabitants, and plundered the cities, and captured their offspring, so that many temples were deserted and the idols were broken and trodden under foot, the largest of which was one called Somnãt, fixed upon stone, polished like a mirror of charming shape and admirable workmanship… Its head was adorned with a crown set with gold and rubies and pearls and other precious stones… and a necklace of large shining pearls, like the belt of Orion, depended from the shoulder towards the side of the body.

“The Muhammadan soldiers plundered all these jewels and rapidly set themselves to demolish the idol. The surviving infidels were deeply affected with grief, and they engaged ‘to pay a thousand pieces of gold’ as ransom for the idol, but they were indignantly rejected, and the idol was destroyed, and ‘its limbs, which were anointed with ambergris and perfumed, were cut off. The fragments were conveyed to Delhi, and the entrance of the Jãmi‘ Masjid was paved with them, that people might remember and talk of this brilliant victory.’ Praise be to God, the Lord of the worlds. Amen!”⁸³
 

The author, Hamdu’llãh bin ‘Abû Bakr bin Hamd bin Nasr Mustaufî of Kazwin in Iran, composed this work in AD 1329. He was secretary to Ghiyãsu’d-Dîn as well as his father Rashîdu’d-Dîn, the ministers of Sultãn Uljãîtû. His work contains matter not found elsewhere.
 

Sultãn Mahmûd of Ghazni (AD 997-1030)

Nagarkot Kangra (Himachal Pradesh)

“…He now attacked the fort of Bhîm, where was a temple of the Hindus. He was victorious, and obtained much wealth, including about a hundred idols of gold and silver. One of the golden images, which weighed a million mishkãls, the Sultãn appropriated to the decoration of the Mosque of Ghaznî, so that the ornaments of the doors were of gold instead of iron.”⁸⁴
 

The author, Shihãbu’d-Dîn ‘Abu’l Abbãs Ahmad bin Yahya bin Fazlu’llãh al-‘Umrî, was born in AD 1301. He was educated at Damascus and Cairo. He is considered to be a great scholar of his time and author of many books. He occupied high positions in Syria and Egypt. This book of his is a large collection of history, geography and biographies. He himself never visited India about which he based his account on sources available to him. He died at Damascus in AD 1348.
 

Sultãn Muhammad bin Tughlaq (AD 1325-1351)

“The Sultãn is not slack in jihãd. He never lets go of his spear or bridle in pursuing jihãd by land and sea routes. This is his main occupation which engages his eyes and ears. He has spent vast sums for the establishment of the faith and the spread of Islãm in these lands, as a result of which the light of Islãm has reached the inhabitants and the flash of the true faith brightened among them. Fire temples⁸⁵ have been destroyed and the images and idols of Budd have been broken, and the lands have been freed from those who were not included in the dãru’l Islãm, that is, those who had refused to become zimmîs. Islãm has been spread by him in the far east and has reached the point of sunrise. In the words of ‘Abû Nasr al-Ãinî, he has carried the flags of the followers of Islãm where they had never reached before and where no chapter or verse (of the Qur’ãn) had ever been recited. Thereafter he got mosques and places of worship erected, and music replaced by call to prayers (azãn), and the incantations of fire-worshippers stopped by recitations of the Qur’ãn. He directed the people of Islãm towards the citadels of the infidels and, by the grace of Allãh, made them (the believers) inheritors of wealth and land and that country which they (the believers) had never trodden upon…⁸⁶

“The Sultãn who is ruling at present has achieved that which had not been achieved so far by any king. He has achieved victory, supremacy, conquest of countries, destruction of the forts of the infidels, and exposure of magicians. He has destroyed idols by which the people of Hindustãn were deceived in vain…”⁸⁷
 

The author whose full name is not known is famous by his surname of Isãmî. His forefathers had served the Sultãns of Delhi since the days of Shamsu’d-Dîn Iltutmish (AD 1210-1236). He was born in AD 1311-12 and lived at Daulatabad (Devagiri) till 1351 when he finished this work at the age of forty. It covers the period from Mahamûd of Ghazni (AD 997-1030) to Muhammad bin Tughlaq (AD 1325-1351).
 

Sultãn ‘Alãu’d-Dîn Khaljî (AD 1296-1316)

Devagiri (Maharashtra)

“Malik Nãîb [Kãfûr] reached there expeditiously and occupied the fort… He built mosques in places occupied by temples.”⁸⁸
 

The full name of this book is Tuhfãtu’n-nuzzãr fi Gharãibu’l-amsãr wa Ajãibu’l-afsãr. The author was Shykh ‘Abû ‘Abdu’llãh Muhammad ibn ‘Abdu’llãh ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrãhim al-Lawãtî at-Tanjî al- Ma’ruf be Ibn Battûta. He belonged to an Arab family which was settled in Spain since AD 1312. His grandfather and father enjoyed the reputation of scholars and theologians. He himself was a great scholar who travelled extensively and over many lands. He came to India in 1325 and visited many places - east, west, north and south - till he left in 1346. India during this period was ruled by Muhammad bin Tughlaq with whom Ibn Battûta came in close contact. He was very fond of sampling Hindu girls from different parts of India. They were presented to him by the Sultãn and other Muslim big-wigs during his sojourn in various places. He also married Muslim women wherever he stayed, and divorced them before his departure. He finished his book in 1355 after reaching Fez in Morocco where his family lived after migration from Spain.
 

Lahari Bandar (Sindh)

“One day I rode in company with ‘Alã-ul-mulk and arrived at a plain called Tarna at a distance of seven miles from the city. There I saw innumerable stone images and animals, many of which had undergone a change, the original shape being obliterated.⁸⁹ Some were reduced to a head, others to a foot and so on. Some of the stones were shaped like grain, wheat, peas, beans and lentils. And there were traces of a house which contained a chamber built of hewn stone, the whole of which looked like one solid mass. Upon it was a statue in the form of a man, the only difference being that its head was long, its mouth was towards a side of its face and its hands at its back like a captive’s. There were pools of water from which an extremely bad smell came. Some of the walls bore Hindî inscriptions. ‘Alã-ul-mulk told me that the historians assume that on this site there was a big city, most of the inhabitants of which were notorious. They were changed into stone. The petrified human form on the platform in the house mentioned above was that of their king. The house still goes by the name of ‘the king’s house’. It is presumed that the Hindî inscriptions, which some of the walls bear, give the history of the destruction of the inhabitants of this city. The destruction took place about a thousand years ago…”⁹⁰
 

Delhi

“Near the eastern gate of the mosque lie two very big idols of copper connected together by stones. Every one who comes in and goes out of the mosque treads over them. On the site of this mosque was a bud khãnã that is an idol-house. After the conquest of Delhi it was turned into a mosque…”⁹¹
 

Maldive Islands

“Reliable men among the inhabitants of the islands, like the jurist (faqîh) and teacher (mu‘allim) ‘Alî, the judge ‘Abdullãh - and others besides them - told me that the inhabitants of these islands were infidels… Subsequently a westerner named Abul Barakãt the Berbar who knew the great Qur’ãn came to them… He stayed amongst them and God opened the heart of the king to Islãm and he accepted it before the end of the month; and his wives, children and courtiers followed suit… They broke to pieces the idols and razed the idol-house to the ground. On this the islanders embraced Islãm and sent missionaries to the rest of the islands, the inhabitants of which also became Muslims. The westerner stood in high regard with them, and they accepted his cult which was that of Imãm Mãlik. May God be pleased with him!  And on account of him they honour the westerners up to this time. He built a mosque which is known after his name…”⁹²
 

The author, Ziau’d-Dîn Baranî was born in AH 684 (AD 1285-86) at Baran, now known as Bulandshahar, in Uttar Pradesh. His ancestors, paternal as well as maternal, had occupied important positions in the reigns of Sultãn Ghiyãsu’d-Dîn Balban (AD 1266-1286) and the Khaljîs. His uncle was a confidant of ‘Alau’d-Dîn Khaljî (AD 1296-1316). Barani became a friend of Amîr Khusrû and a disciple of Nizãmu’d-Dîn Auliyã‘, the renowned Chishtî saint of Delhi. His prosperity continued in the reign of Sultãn Ghiyãsu’d-Dîn Tughlaq (AD 1320-1325) and he became a favourite of Sultãn Muhammad bin Tughlaq (AD 1325-1351). But he fell from favour with the rise of Sultãn Fîrûz Tughlaq (AD 1351-1388) and was imprisoned for five months for some offence. He completed this history in AD 1357. It covers a period of 82 years, from AD 1265 onwards. He wrote several other books among which Fatwa-i-Jahãndãrî is famous for its tenets regarding how an Islamic state should be run. Baranî’s ideal ruler was Sultãn Mahmûd of Ghazni. He exhorted Muslim rulers to follow Mahmûd’s example in their treatment of Hindus, for whom he often uses very foul language.
 

Sultãn Jalãlu’d-Dîn Khaljî (AD 1290-1296)

Jhain (Rajasthan)

“In the year AH 689 (AD 1290), the Sultãn led an army to Rantambhor… He took… Jhãin, destroyed the idol temples, and broke and burned the idols…”⁹³
 

Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh)

“ ’Alãu’d-dîn at this time held the territory of Karra, and with the permission of the Sultãn he marched to Bhailsãn (Bhîlsa).  He captured some bronze idols which the Hindus worshipped and sent them on carts with a variety of rich booty as presents to the Sultãn. The idols were laid before the Badãûn gate for true believers to tread upon…”⁹⁴
 

Sultãn ‘Alãu’d-Dîn Khaljî (AD 1296-1316)

Somnath (Gujarat)

“At the beginning of the third year of the reign, Ulugh Khãn and Nusrat Khãn, with their amîrs and generals, and a large army marched against Gujarat… All Gujarãt became a prey to the invaders, and the idol, which after the victory of Sultãn Mahmûd and his destruction of (the idol) of Manãt, the Brahmans had set up under the name of Somanãt, for the worship of the Hindus, was carried to Delhi where it was laid for the people to tread upon…”⁹⁵
 

Ma‘bar (Tamil Nadu)

“……Malik Nãîb Kãfûr marched on to Ma’bar, which he also took. He destroyed the golden idol temple (but-khãnah i-zarîn) of Ma’bar, and the golden idols which for ages had been worshipped by the Hindus of that country. The fragments of the golden temple, and of the broken idols of gold and gilt became the rich spoil of the army…”⁹⁶
 

The author, Shams Sirãj Afîf or Shamsu’d-Dîn bin Siraju’d-Dîn, became a courtier of Sultãn Fîrûz Shãh Tughlaq and undertook to complete the aforementioned history of Baranî who had stopped at the sixth year of Fîrûz Shãh’s reign.
 

Sultãn Fîrûz Shãh Tughlaq (AD 1351-1388)

Puri (Orissa)

“The Sultãn left Banãrasî with the intention of pursuing the Rãî of Jãjnagar, who had fled to an island in the river… News was then brought that in the jangal were seven elephants, and one old she-elephant, which was very fierce. The Sultãn resolved upon endeavouring to capture these elephants before continuing the pursuit of the Rãî... ⁹⁷

“After the hunt was over, the Sultãn directed his attention to the Rãî of Jãjnagar, and entering the palace where he dwelt he found many fine buildings. It is reported that inside the Rãî’s fort, there was a stone idol which the infidels called Jagannãth, and to which they paid their devotions. Sultãn Fîroz, in emulation of Mahmûd Subuktigîn, having rooted up the idol, carried it away to Delhi where he placed it in an ignominious position…”⁹⁸
 

Nagarkot Kangra (Himachal Pradesh)

“The idol, Jwãlãmukhî, much worshipped by the infidels, was situated on the road to Nagarkot… Some of the infidels have reported that Sultãn Fîroz went specially to see this idol and held a golden umbrella over it. But the author was informed by his respected father, who was in the Sultãn’s retinue, that the infidels slandered the Sultãn, who was a religious, God-fearing man, who, during the whole forty years of his reign, paid strict obedience to the law, and that such an action was impossible. The fact is, that when he went to see the idol, all the rãîs, rãnas and zamîndãrs who accompanied him were summoned into his presence, when he addressed them, saying, ‘O fools and weak-minded, how can ye pray to and worship this stone, for our holy law tells us that those who oppose the decrees of our religion, will go to hell?’ The Sultãn held the idol in the deepest detestation, but the infidels, in the blindness of their delusion, have made this false statement against him. Other infidels have said that Sultãn Muhammad Shãh bin Tughlik Shãh held an umbrella over the same idol, but this is also a lie; and good Muhammadans should pay no heed to such statements. These two Sultãns were sovereigns especially chosen by the Almighty from among the faithful, and in the whole course of their reigns, wherever they took an idol temple they broke and destroyed it; how, then, can such assertions be true? The infidels must certainly have lied!”⁹⁹
 

Delhi

“A report was brought to the Sultãn that there was in Delhi an old Brahman (zunãr dãr) who persisted in publicly performing the worship of idols in his house; and that people of the city, both Musulmãns and Hindus, used to resort to his house to worship the idol. The Brahman had constructed a wooden tablet (muhrak), which was covered within and without with paintings of demons and other objects… An order was accordingly given that the Brahman, with his tablet, should be brought into the presence of the Sultãn at Fîrozãbãd. The judges and doctors and elders and lawyers were summoned, and the case of the Brahman was submitted for their opinion. Their reply was that the provisions of the Law were clear: the Brahman must either become a Musulmãn or be burned. The true faith was declared to the Brahman, and the right course pointed out, but he refused to accept it. Orders were given for raising a pile of faggots before the door of the darbãr. The Brahman was tied hand and foot and cast into it; the tablet was thrown on top and the pile was lighted. The writer of this book was present at the darbãr and witnessed the execution. The tablet of the Brahman was lighted in two places, at his head and at his feet; the wood was dry, and the fire first reached his feet, and drew from him a cry, but the flames quickly enveloped his head and consumed him. Behold the Sultãn’s strict adherence to law and rectitude, how he would not deviate in the least from its decrees!”¹⁰⁰
 

The author, Ãînu’d-Dîn Abdullãh bin Mãhrû, was a high official in the court of Sultãn Fîrûz Shãh Tughlaq. Inshã-i-Mãhrû is a collection of 133 letters related to various events.
 

Sultãn Fîrûz Shãh Tughlaq (AD 1351-1388)

Jajnagar (Orissa)

“The victorious standards set out from Jaunpur for the destruction of idols, slaughter of the enemies of Islãm and hunt for elephants near Padamtalãv… The Sultãn saw Jãjnagar which had been praised by all
travellers…¹⁰¹

“The troops which had been appointed for the destruction of places around Jãjnagar, ended the conceit of the infidels by means of the sword and the spear. Wherever there were temples and idols in that area, they were trampled under the hoofs of the horses of Musalmãns…¹⁰²

“After obtaining victory and sailing on the sea and destroying the temple of Jagannãth and slaughtering the idolaters, the victorious standards started towards Delhi…”¹⁰³
 

This small history was written by Sultãn Fîrûz Shãh Tughlaq (AD 1351-1388) himself. The writer of Tabqãt-i-Akbarî, Nizãm’ud-Dîn Ahmad, a 16th century historian, says that the Sultãn had got the eight chapters of his work inscribed on eight slabs of stone which were fixed on eight sides of the octagonal dome of a building near the Jãmi‘ Masjid at Fîrûzãbãd.
 

Prayers for Temple-destroyers of the Past

“The next matter which by God’s help I accomplished, was the repetition of names and titles of former sovereigns which had been omitted from the prayers of Sabbaths and Feasts. The names of those sovereigns of Islãm, under whose happy fortune and favour infidel countries had been conquered, whose banners had waved over many a land, under whom idol-temples had been demolished, and mosques and pulpits built and exalted, the fragrant creed had been extended, and the people of Islãm had waxen strong and warlike, the names of these men had fallen into neglect and oblivion. So I decreed that according to established custom their names and titles should be rehearsed in the khutba and aspirations offered for the remission of their sins.”¹⁰⁴
 

Delhi and Environs

“The Hindus and idol-worshippers had agreed to pay the money for toleration (zar-i zimmiya) and had consented to the poll-tax (jizya) in return for which they and their families enjoyed security. These people now erected new idol-temples in the city and the environs in opposition to the Law of the Prophet which declares that such temples are not to be tolerated. Under divine guidance I destroyed these edifices and I killed those leaders of infidelity who seduced others into error, and the lower orders I subjected to stripes and chastisement, until this abuse was entirely abolished. The following is an instance:- In the village of Malûh¹⁰⁵ there is a tank which they call kund (tank). Here they had built idol-temples and on certain days the Hindus were accustomed to proceed thither on horseback, and wearing arms. Their women and children also went out in palankins and carts. There they assembled in thousands and performed idol-worship… When intelligence of this came to my ears my religious feelings prompted me at once to put a stop to this scandal and offence to the religion of Islãm. On the day of the assembly I went there in person and I ordered that the leaders of these people and the promoters of this abomination should be put to death. I forbade the infliction of any severe punishments on Hindus in general, but I destroyed their idol-temples, and instead thereof raised mosques. I founded two flourishing towns (kasba), one called Tughlikpûr, the other Sãlãrpûr. Where infidels and idolaters worshipped idols, Musulmãns now, by God’s mercy, perform their devotions to the true God. Praises of God and the summons to prayer are now heard there, and that place which was formerly the home of infidels has become the habitation of the faithful, who there repeat their creed and offer up their praises to God.

“Information was brought to me that some Hindus had erected a new idol temple in the village of Sãlihpûr, and were performing worship to their idols. I sent some persons there to destroy the idol temple, and put a stop to their pernicious incitements to error.”¹⁰⁶
 

Gohana (Haryana)

“Some Hindûs had erected a new idol-temple in the village of Kohãna, and the idolaters used to assemble there and perform their idolatrous rites. These people were seized and brought before me. I ordered that the perverse conduct of the leaders of this wickedness should be publicly proclaimed, and that they should be put to death before the gate of the palace. I also ordered that the infidel books, the idols, and the vessels used in their worship, which had been taken with them, should all be publicly burnt. The others were restrained by threats and punishments, as a warning to all men, that no zimmî could follow such wicked practices in a Musulmãn country.”¹⁰⁷
 

It is a text either written or dictated by Sultãn Fîrûz Shãh Tughlaq himself. According to this book, the objects of his expedition to Jajnagar were: “extirpating Rai Gajpat, massacring the unbelievers, demolishing their temples, hunting elephants, and getting a glimpse of their enchanting country.” ‘Ain-ul-Mulk also says, “The object of the expedition was to break the idols, to shed the blood of the enemies of Islãm (and) to hunt elephants.”¹⁰⁸
 

Sultãn Fîrûz Shãh Tughlaq (AD 1351-1388)

Puri (Orissa)

“Allãh, who is the only true God and has no other emanation, endowed the king of Islãm with the strength to destroy this ancient shrine on the eastern sea-coast and to plunge it into the sea, and after its destruction, he ordered the nose of the image of Jagannãth to be perforated and disgraced it by casting it down on the ground. They dug out other idols, which were worshipped by the polytheists in the kingdom of Jãjnagar, and overthrew them as they did the image of Jagannãth, for being laid in front of the mosques along the path of the Sunnis and way of the musallis (the multitude who offer prayers) and stretched them in front of the portals of every mosque, so that the body and sides of the images may be trampled at the time of ascent and descent, entrance and exit, by the shoes on the feet of the Muslims.”¹⁰⁹
 

The author, Yahya bin Ahmad bin Abdu’llãh Sirhindî, lived in the reign of Sultãn Muizu’d-Dîn Abu’l Fath Mubãrak Shãh (AD 1421-1434) of the Sayyid dynasty which ruled at Delhi from AD 1414 to 1451. This history starts from the time of Muhammad Ghûrî (AD 1175-1206) and closes with the year AD 1434.
 

Sultãn Shamsu’d-Dîn Iltutmish (AD 1210-1236)

Vidisha and Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh)

“In AH 631 he invaded Mãlwah, and after suppressing the rebels of that place, he destroyed that idol-temple which had existed there for the past three hundred years.

“Next he turned towards Ujjain and conquered it, and after demolishing the idol-temple of Mahãkãl, he uprooted the statue of Bikramãjît together with all other statues and images which were placed on pedestals, and brought them to the capital where they were laid before the Jãmi‘ Masjid for being trodden under foot by the people.”¹¹⁰
 

Sultãn ‘Alãu’d-Dîn Khaljî (AD 1296-1316)

Somnath (Gujarat)

“Ulugh Khãn invaded Gujarãt. He sacked the whole country… He pursued the Rãî upto Somnãth. He destroyed the temple of Somnãth which was the principal place of worship for the Hindûs and great Rãîs since ancient times. He constructed a mosque on the site and returned to Delhi…”¹¹¹
 

The author, Muhammad Bihãmad Khãnî was the son of the governor of Irich in Bundelkhand. He was a soldier who participated in several wars. At last he became the disciple of a Sufi, Yûsuf Buddha, of Irich and spent the rest of his life in religious pursuits. His history covers a long period - from Prophet Muhammad to AD 1438-39.
 

Sultãn Ghiyãsu’d-Dîn Tughlaq Shãh II (AD 1388-89)

Kalpi (Uttar Pradesh)

“In the meanwhile Delhi received news of the defeat of the armies of Islãm which were with Malikzãdã Mahmûd bin Fîrûz Khãn… This Malikzãdã reached the bank of the Yamunã via Shãhpur and renamed Kãlpî, which was the abode and centre of the infidels and the wicked, as Muhammadãbã